Fig. 3

Modulating effects of nicotine on multiple cytokines during neuroinflammation. Activated human astrocytes were treated with nicotine at 1, 10, and 100 μM for 20 h, and their supernatants were collected. Cytokine profiling related to Th1/Th2 immune response was performed using multiplex cytokine ELISA and human IL-8 sandwich ELISA. Samples were run as duplicates, and values are represented as mean ± SEM from at least three independent experiments (n = 3 for multiplex ELISA and n = 6 for sandwich ELISA). Data is presented in terms of fold change compared to cytokine levels following IL-1β treatment. Nicotine treatment significantly reduced the production of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-13, and chemokine IL-8. Statistical analyses was performed using one-way ANOVA (****p < 0.0001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05)