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Table 3 Biomarkers and clinical features in ASD and schizophrenia
| Biomarker | Associated clinical features | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ASD | Schizophrenia | ||
| Immune function | |||
| IL-6 | ↑ in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors; positive correlation with severity of autism and CARS scores | Ashwood et al. 2011; Yang et al. 2015 Chang-JiangYang et al. 2015 | |
| ↑ in patients compared to controls; correlated to negative symptoms and duration of illness | Kim et al. 2000 | ||
| State marker | Miller et al. 2013 | ||
| TNF-α | ↑ in patients compared to controls; positive correlation with the severity of autism; positively correlated to CARS scores | Yang et al. 2015 Chang-JiangYang et al. 2015 | |
| ↓ in patients compared to controls; negative correlation to PANSS total score, general psychopathology, positive and cognitive subscales | Lv, Tan, 2015; Noto, Maes, 2015a | ||
| Trait marker | Miller et al. 2011 | ||
| TNF-R1 and TNF-R2 | NF | TNF-R1 significantly correlated with positive symptoms (PANSS) | Hope et al. 2013 |
| ↑soluble forms, and associated with treatment resistance | Noto, Maes, 2015a | ||
| IL-1β | ↑ in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors | Ashwood et al. 2011 | |
| State marker | Miller et al. 2011 | ||
| IL-1RA | NF | Significantly correlated with negative symptoms (PANSS) | Hope et al. 2013 |
| IL-12 | ↑ in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors | Ashwood et al. 2011 | |
| Trait marker | Miller et al. 2011 | ||
| IFN-ϒ | NF | Trait marker | Miller et al. 2011 |
| TGF-β | ↓TGF-β1 in autistic children compared to controls or children with other DD; significant correlation with reduced adaptive behaviors and worse behavioral symptoms | Ashwood et al. 2008 | |
| State marker | Miller et al. 2013 | ||
| Chemokines | ↑ osteopontin in autistic children compared to controls; positive correlation with CARS scores and disease severity | Al-Ayadhi and Mostafa, 2011 | |
| ↑ IL-8 in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors | Ashwood et al. 2011 | ||
| ↑ CCL11 and MIP-1α; CCL11 positively associated with negative symptoms ↑ MCP-1 associated with treatment resistance ↓ IP-10 | Noto, Maes, 2015a | ||
| IL-2 | NF | ↓ in patients than controls; Inversely associated with negative symptoms; in patients negative correlation between IL-2 and total score in negative subscale of PANSS | Noto, Maes, 2015a; Azevedo et al. 2014 |
| ↑ in patients compared to controls; significant inverse relationship with positive subscale of PANSS | Zhang et al. 2002 | ||
| IL-2R | NF | Trait marker; ↑ in patients compared to controls; associated with Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale total scores, negative symptom and general psychopathology subscale scores | Miller et al. 2013; Bresee and Rapaport, 2009 |
| Lymphocyte populations | ↑ total lymphocytes, ↑T lymphocytes CD3+; ↑T helper CD4+; ↑CD4/CD8; ↓proportion T lymphocytes CD3+ in drug naïve FEP | Miller et al. 2013 | |
| NF | ↑ proportion of CD4+ and CD56+ in acutely relapsed patients; CD4/CD8 ratio in a state marker; CD56 is a trait marker | Miller et al. 2013 | |
| Immunoglobulins and antibodies | ↓ plasma IgG and IgM in autistic children compared to other DD and healthy controls; correlated with behavioral severity in autistic children | NF | Heuer et al. 2008 |
| ↑ anti-ganglioside M1 in autistic children compared to healthy controls; correlated with disease severity and CARS scores | Mostafa and Al-Ayadhi, 2011 | ||
| ↑ anti-neuronal antibodies in autistic children compared to healthy controls; correlated with disease severity | Mostafa and Al-Ayadhi, 2012 | ||
| Oxidative stress | |||
| ↓ pyridoxal | NF | Acute stage schizophrenia The greater the decrease in pyridoxal levels (admission to discharge) the less improvement in symptoms | Katsuta et al. 2014 |
| ↑ pentosodine ↓ pyridoxal | NF | Clinical features of treatment resistant schizophrenia; possible biomarkers | A rai et al. 2010; Miyashita et al. 2014 |
