Table 3 Biomarkers and clinical features in ASD and schizophrenia
Biomarker | Associated clinical features | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
ASD | Schizophrenia | Â | |
Immune function | |||
IL-6 | ↑ in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors; positive correlation with severity of autism and CARS scores |  | Ashwood et al. 2011; Yang et al. 2015 Chang-JiangYang et al. 2015 |
|  | ↑ in patients compared to controls; correlated to negative symptoms and duration of illness | Kim et al. 2000 | |
| Â | State marker | Miller et al. 2013 | |
TNF-α | ↑ in patients compared to controls; positive correlation with the severity of autism; positively correlated to CARS scores |  | Yang et al. 2015 Chang-JiangYang et al. 2015 |
|  | ↓ in patients compared to controls; negative correlation to PANSS total score, general psychopathology, positive and cognitive subscales | Lv, Tan, 2015; Noto, Maes, 2015a | |
| Â | Trait marker | Miller et al. 2011 | |
TNF-R1 and TNF-R2 | NF | TNF-R1 significantly correlated with positive symptoms (PANSS) | Hope et al. 2013 |
↑soluble forms, and associated with treatment resistance | Noto, Maes, 2015a | ||
IL-1β | ↑ in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors |  | Ashwood et al. 2011 |
| Â | State marker | Miller et al. 2011 | |
IL-1RA | NF | Significantly correlated with negative symptoms (PANSS) | Hope et al. 2013 |
IL-12 | ↑ in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors |  | Ashwood et al. 2011 |
| Â | Trait marker | Miller et al. 2011 | |
IFN-Ï’ | NF | Trait marker | Miller et al. 2011 |
TGF-β | ↓TGF-β1 in autistic children compared to controls or children with other DD; significant correlation with reduced adaptive behaviors and worse behavioral symptoms |  | Ashwood et al. 2008 |
| Â | State marker | Miller et al. 2013 | |
Chemokines | ↑ osteopontin in autistic children compared to controls; positive correlation with CARS scores and disease severity |  | Al-Ayadhi and Mostafa, 2011 |
↑ IL-8 in patients compared to controls; predominantly in children with regressive autism, associated with more impaired communication and aberrant behaviors |  | Ashwood et al. 2011 | |
|  | ↑ CCL11 and MIP-1α; CCL11 positively associated with negative symptoms ↑ MCP-1 associated with treatment resistance ↓ IP-10 | Noto, Maes, 2015a | |
IL-2 | NF | ↓ in patients than controls; Inversely associated with negative symptoms; in patients negative correlation between IL-2 and total score in negative subscale of PANSS | Noto, Maes, 2015a; Azevedo et al. 2014 |
|  | ↑ in patients compared to controls; significant inverse relationship with positive subscale of PANSS | Zhang et al. 2002 | |
IL-2R | NF | Trait marker; ↑ in patients compared to controls; associated with Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale total scores, negative symptom and general psychopathology subscale scores | Miller et al. 2013; Bresee and Rapaport, 2009 |
Lymphocyte populations |  | ↑ total lymphocytes, ↑T lymphocytes CD3+; ↑T helper CD4+; ↑CD4/CD8; ↓proportion T lymphocytes CD3+ in drug naïve FEP | Miller et al. 2013 |
NF | ↑ proportion of CD4+ and CD56+ in acutely relapsed patients; CD4/CD8 ratio in a state marker; CD56 is a trait marker | Miller et al. 2013 | |
Immunoglobulins and antibodies | ↓ plasma IgG and IgM in autistic children compared to other DD and healthy controls; correlated with behavioral severity in autistic children | NF | Heuer et al. 2008 |
↑ anti-ganglioside M1 in autistic children compared to healthy controls; correlated with disease severity and CARS scores |  | Mostafa and Al-Ayadhi, 2011 | |
↑ anti-neuronal antibodies in autistic children compared to healthy controls; correlated with disease severity |  | Mostafa and Al-Ayadhi, 2012 | |
Oxidative stress | |||
↓ pyridoxal | NF | Acute stage schizophrenia The greater the decrease in pyridoxal levels (admission to discharge) the less improvement in symptoms | Katsuta et al. 2014 |
↑ pentosodine ↓ pyridoxal | NF | Clinical features of treatment resistant schizophrenia; possible biomarkers | A rai et al. 2010; Miyashita et al. 2014 |