Fig. 1

Laparotomy induced acute and persistent peripheral inflammation and neuroinflammation. a Relative mRNA levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the liver, frontal cortex, and hippocampus showed a pro-inflammatory state at 4 h after laparotomy. b Cytokines protein expressions measured by MILLIPLEX assay of whole tissue lysates at 24 h for the brain and liver. a, b n = 7–8; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. c Systemic inflammation was determined by the increases of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the plasma on POD 1, 3, and 14. At 24 and 72 h, n = 7–8; at 14d, n = 8–12; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. For IL-1β, LAP+Ibu vs. LAP, p = 0.0685. d On postoperative day (POD) 14, similar cytokine concentration in the brain after sevoflurane anesthesia or laparotomy under sevoflurane anesthesia with or without ibuprofen consumption (n = 8–12)