Fig. 5

Intracerebroventricular injection of lactate reduced classical microglial polarization and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and substantia nigra. a, b Quantification of the mRNA levels of microglial M1 and M2 markers in the hippocampus and substantia nigra, respectively, after intraperitoneal injection of LPS and intraventricular injection of L-lactate (n = 6–9 per group). c, d Immunostaining of classical microglia markers, CD86, and Iba1, and quantification of Iba1⁺ cells and CD86⁺ cells in the hippocampus in each group (n = 5–6 per group). *p and ^#p < 0.05, **p and ^##p < 0.01, two-way ANOVA followed by post hoc. Scale bar = 50 μm