Fig. 3

TSA administration markedly ameliorates neuroinflammation in NMOSD lesions at 24 h after brain injection. a Representative immunofluorescence staining of CD45⁺ leukocytes (top, red), Ly6G⁺ neutrophils (middle, red), and Iba⁺-activated microglia and macrophages (bottom, green) in the NMOSD lesion-side hemisphere at 24 h after brain injection. Yellow lines indicate needle tract; white lines delimit the lesion. b Inflammatory cells’ quantification is expressed as the absolute area (mm²) [CD45⁺ leukocytes (top) and Ly6G⁺ neutrophils (middle)] or the number of inflammatory cell subsets [Iba-1⁺-activated microglia and macrophages (bottom)] in the NMOSD lesion-side hemisphere. Vehicle, n = 15; pre-TSA, n = 15; post-TSA, n = 5. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001. The data are representative of three independent experiments. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison tests was performed