Fig. 8

A scheme of regulation of ischemic stroke injury by CSO treatment. Immediately after ischemic stroke, microglia and astrocytes were excessively activated and released robust inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α, which contributed to severe inflammatory response and thus aggravated brain injury. And CSO treatment could reduce the expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) by inhibiting microglia and astrocyte activation induced by ischemic stroke injury. In addition, ischemic stroke injury leads to TLR4-mediated microglia activation with the release of TNF-α, which induces NF-κB-mediated A1 astrocyte activation and the release of neurotoxic complement C3d directly leading to neuron death; this pathway was alleviated by CSO treatment