Fig. 2

Bacterial-induced periodontitis increased immune responses in the gums and the brains of nTg mice. a Schematic illustration of the experimental timeline and treatment. b Representative two-dimensional sagittal images of the left mandibular jaws from nTg mice in each group. Red and yellow bars indicate the distance from the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) to the alveolar bone crest (ABC) (Left); Quantitative measurements of the vertical bone loss (mm) from CEJ to ABC between the first and second molars (Right). Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 8). c Relative mRNA expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the gums of nTg mice in each group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 10–11). d Relative mRNA expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the hippocampus, frontal cortex, and hypothalamus of nTg mice in each group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 11). e Representative images of immunofluorescence staining for Iba-1-positive microglia (green) and DAPI (blue) in the cortex, sub-regions of the hippocampus, and thalamus of nTg mice in each group. f Representative images of immunofluorescence staining for GFAP-positive astrocytes (red) and DAPI (blue) in the cortex, sub-regions of the hippocampus, and thalamus of nTg mice in each group. g, h Quantification of (g) Iba-1 and (h) GFAP immunofluorescence intensity in the cortex, sub-regions of the hippocampus, and thalamus of nTg mice in each group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 5). Statistical analysis was done using unpaired t test. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01