Fig. 4

Bacterial-induced periodontitis increased immune responses in the gums and the brains of 3 × Tg-AD mice. a Representative two-dimensional sagittal images of the left mandibular jaws from 3 × Tg-AD mice in each group. Red and yellow bars indicate the distance from the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) to the alveolar bone crest (ABC) (Left); Quantitative measurements of the vertical bone loss (mm) from CEJ to ABC between the first and second molars (Right). Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 4–5). b Relative mRNA expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the gums of 3 × Tg-AD mice in each group. c Relative mRNA expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the hippocampus, frontal cortex, and hypothalamus of 3 × Tg-AD mice in each group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 3). d Representative images of immunofluorescence staining for Iba-1-positive microglia (green) and DAPI (blue) in the cortex, sub-regions of the hippocampus, and thalamus of 3 × Tg-AD mice in each group. e Representative images of immunofluorescence staining for GFAP-positive astrocytes (red) and DAPI (blue) in the cortex, sub-regions of the hippocampus, and thalamus of 3 × Tg-AD mice in each group. f, g Quantification of (f) Iba-1 and (g) GFAP immunofluorescence intensity in the cortex, sub-regions of the hippocampus, and thalamus of 3 × Tg-AD mice in each group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (n = 7). Statistical analysis was done using unpaired t test. *p < 0.05