Table 1 Overview of the different prostanoids, their receptors and their described function in MS

Thromboxanes

Thromboxane A₂

(TxA₂)

TxAS

TP

• Promotes platelet aggregation

[84]

Prostaglandins

Prostaglandin D₂

(PGD₂)

Combination of COX-1/2 + 

H-PGDS or L-PGDS

DP1

• Inhibits the migration and activation of T lymphocytes and basophils

[66, 67]

DP2

• Promotes T lymphocyte migration

[68]

15-deoxy-δ (12,14)-PGJ₂

(15d-PGJ₂)

Combination of COX-1/2 + 

H-PGDS or L-PGDS + 

Non-enzymatically conversion of PGD₂

PPAR-y

• Suppresses astrocytic and microglial production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF, Il-1β

• Regulate macrophage migration, proliferation and activation in vitro

[71, 75, 76]

Prostaglandin E₂

(PGE₂)

Combination of COX-1/2 + 

mPGES-1 or 2

EP1

• Contribute to the disruption of the BBB via matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9)

[46,47,48]

EP2

• Increases in IFNγ and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)

• Induce a pro-inflammatory phenotype in both macrophages and microglia

• Increase in COX-2 expression and the induction of apoptosis in rat microglia

[53, 54, 60, 61]

EP3

–

–

EP4

• Accumulation of T-helper lymphocytes in the CNS

• Differentiation of Th1 lymphocytes

• Expansion of Th17 lymphocytes contribute to BBB disruption

• Downregulate activation of microglia/macrophage cells

[56,57,58,59]

Prostaglandin F2-alpha

(PGF_2α)

Combination of COX-1/2 + 

ACR1C1 or ACR1C3

FPα/β

• Indirectly promotes demyelination through glial activation

[70]

Prostacyclin

(PGI₂)

Combination of COX-1/2 + 

PTGIS

IP

• Induce Th17 lymphocyte signalling and differentiation in vitro

• Prevent pericyte loss and demyelination after LPC treatment

• Counteracting the vasoconstrictor and platelet aggregation-promoting role of thromboxane A₂

[80, 81, 83]