Table 3 Functions of the 23 genes significantly upregulated (threefold or more) in rat blood 3 days after traumatic brain injury (determined by the qPCR array)
Gene symbol | Gene function (reference) |
|---|---|
Chemokines | |
Ccl 2 | Ccl 2 signaling induces angiogenesis in the vasculature [63, 64] and protects against ischemia in the myocardium [65]. |
Ccl 22 | Ccl 22 and IL-10 are products of M2-polarized cells [66]. |
Cxcl 10 | Cxcl 10 expression increases in focal stroke [67] and is associated with leukocyte migration [68]. Cxcl 10 attracts T cells, which are hypothesized to be a major mechanism for the detrimental effects of TBI [69]. |
Ppbp (Nap.2) | NAP-2 promotes directed intravascular leukocyte migration though platelet thrombi [70]. |
Ccl 17 | Ccl 17 possessed anti-microbial properties [71]. In cerebral ischemia, cc chemokines present an important phagocytic activity [72]. |
Ccl 19 | In the adult central nervous system, neuroprotective and reparative proinflammatory mediator [73]. |
Ccl 3 | CC-chemokine receptor CCR 5 activation by Ccl 3 on microglia might protect against microglial neurotoxicity [74]. |
Cxcl 19 | In a hypoxic environment and later progression of cancer M1 macrophage produce Cxcl 19 often transition into M2 macrophages [75]. |
Interleukins | |
IL 18 | Member of the IL-1 family and pro-inflammatory cytokine [76]. |
IL 16 | A pro-inflammatory cytokine that promotes the secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 [77]. |
IL 1γn | Inhibits the actions of IL-1α and IL-1β [78]. In animal studies, overexpression of IL-1γn (IL-1 receptor antagonist) improves outcomes from experimental stroke [78]. |
IL 7 | Initiates signaling cascades that induce anti-apoptotic BCL-2 family members [79]. |
Tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily | |
Cd 70 | Induces the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines [80]. |
Faslg | Induces apoptosis [81]. |
Ltb | Upregulated by endotoxin in vivo [82]. |
Tnfrsf 11b | An indicator for poor outcome of ischemic stroke [83]. |
Other cytokines | |
Mif | Exacerbates outcomes of experimental stroke [84]. |
Bmp 6 | Inhibits apoptotic pathways [85]. |
Bmp 7 | It exerts neuroprotective effects in models of stroke [86, 87]. |
GPi | A neurotrophic factor [88]. |
Anti-inflammatory cytokines | |
IL-10 | Provides direct trophic support to neurons [89–91]. A product of M2-polarized macrophages and microglia [66]. |
IL-22 | A member of the IL-10-related cytokine family [92]. |
IL-6 | A complete lack of IL-6 might be detrimental to neurogenesis in the adult brain [46, 47]. An IL-6 deficiency after TBI is associated with poor behavior performance on standard animal behavior test [45]. |