Fig. 3

Microglia and macrophage mediated mechanisms of neurodegeneration in progressive MS. Microglia and macrophages release many cytokines, including TNF-a, and IL-1β, which may contribute to neurodegeneration via cytokine induced cell death, inhibition of astrocytic glutamate reuptake, and via the induction of dysfunctional RNA binding proteins. Microglia and macrophages can also release glutamate, potentially contributing to glutamate excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Lastly, microglia and macrophages release ROS/RNS which may contribute to neurodegeneration by inducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial injury