Fig. 1

Orthopedic surgery induces glial activation and pro-inflammatory phenotypes in the hippocampus. A Mice were established orthopedic surgery-induced POD model. Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus were analyzed by ELISA. B Levels of anti-inflammatory and neurotrophic cytokines in the hippocampus were analyzed by ELISA. C mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes as well as neurotrophic genes in the hippocampus were analyzed by RT-PCR. D Immunohistochemical staining of Iba-1 in the hippocampus of CON and POD mice. E Immunohistochemical staining of GFAP in the hippocampus of CON and POD mice. F Analysis of Iba-1-positive area and cell numbers in the hippocampus. G Analysis of GFAP-positive area and cell numbers in the hippocampus. H Expression of GFAP and Iba-1 in the hippocampus of CON and POD mice. I Densitometric analysis of GFAP and Iba-1. J Heatmap of neurotoxic astrocytes transcripts in the hippocampus of CON and POD mice. K Heatmap of neuroprotective astrocytes transcripts in the hippocampus of CON and POD mice. L Expression of C3, Serping1 and Psmb8 in the hippocampus of CON and POD mice. M Densitometric analysis of C3, Serping1 and Psmb8. N Double immunofluorescent staining of astrocytic pan-active marker GFAP and neurotoxic astrocytic marker C3 in hippocampus of CON and POD mice. O Relative co-localized signals of the GFAP-positive and C3-positive immunofluorescent particles between CON and POD group. Data are analyzed by unpaired Student’s t-test. ^*P < 0.05, ^**P < 0.01 and ^***P < 0.001 vs. the CON group. Values are presented as means ± SEM from at least three independent experiments